In 1952, Chief Luthuli was one of the leading lights behind the Defiance Campaign a non-violent protest against the pass laws. It is possible that Luthuli became involved with African cane growers, defending their interests. (2021, February 16). published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. Luthuli showed empathy with working peoples concerns, joining the Natal Native Teachers Union, and in 1928 was elected its secretary. Deffinger. Also see Albert Luthuli Oral History Project. Albert Luthuli refused to resign from the ANC, issued a statement to the press ('The Road to Freedom is via the Cross') which reaffirmed his support for passive resistance to Apartheidand was subsequently dismissed from his chieftaincy in November. It seeks to identify "wounds of the times" on a global level and presents justice as a remedy to these wounds. His reply was always to defend the right of people of all ideological persuasions to play their part in the struggle for African equality and to support the multiracial Congress Alliance as the foundation of a future integrated society. Silver (OLS), for excellent contributions. Moreover, he started attending meetings of the Durban Joint Council. Source Lutuli, A.J. In June 1954, he wrote - A message to the African people and their allies in the struggle for freedom in the Union of South Africa'. In 1908 he was sent to his ancestral home at Groutville, Natal where he went to the mission school. The audit team concluded that "rules and procedures of general acceptable accounting practices have been dismally violated.". Groutville, Natal (now Kwazulu-Natal), South Africa. Public statement made after dismissal from his chieftainship by the government in 1952. Initially, he resisted the appeal by village elders to take up the chieftaincy. Born towards the end of the nineteenth century into the Zulu tribe, he began his career as a teacher, but later gave it up to become the tribal chief on the invitation of the tribal elders. Alistair Boddy-Evans is a teacher and African history scholar with more than 25 years of experience. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. The audit team said Luthuli denied any knowledge of the payments, saying the rubber stamp and church letterheads were "unofficially used as the said letter was not even typed by the sectional secretary but by the treasurer herself". It falls on July 21, the day of his passing away. Dr. Bernie Lutz of Grand Rapids was honored with a doctor of letters degree by Concordia University, St. Paul, at its Spring commencement May 9, 2014. But it was only when I was chief that I became a member. Albert John Mvumbi Luthuli was born sometime around 1898 near Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, the son of a Seventh Day Adventist missionary. He was particularly active on the East Rand where, along with Oliver Tambo, he addressed numerous meetings on different occasions. His Christian beliefs acted as a foundation for his approach to political life in South Africa at a time when many of his contemporaries were calling for a more militant response to Apartheid. Succumbing to pressure from the elders of his tribe, Luthuli agreed in 1935 to accept the chieftaincy of Groutville reserve, and returned home to become an administrator of tribal affairs. He performed the judicial function of a magistrate, the mediating function of an official acting as representative of his people and at the same time as representative of the central government, the tribal function of a presiding dignitary at traditional festivities, and the executive function of a leader seeking a better life for his people. On July 21, 1967, as he made a habitual crossing of a railway bridge near his small farm, Chief Luthuli was struck by a train and died. https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/albert-john-luthuli-9.php. roaring fork club fractional ownership 1. On July 21, 1967, as he was walking across a trestle bridge over the Umvuti River near his farm, he was hit by a freight train and died from it. Noted by C. and M. Legum, The Bitter Choice, p. 50. I do not know the date of birth. Lutuli was heir to a tradition of tribal leadership. In 1933 the tribal elders asked Lutuli to become chief of the tribe. Paul Chinn/The Chronicle Show More Show Less 2 of 7 The Rev. I joined Congress about 1945 when Dr. Dube, the Natal President, was virtually bed-ridden through a stroke that incapacitated him until his death in 1946. He was also the secretary of the Natal African Teachers Association and of the South African Football Association. A. R. Bernard overseeing a renewal of marriage vows. Updates? For two years he hesitated, for he was loath to give up his profession and the financial security it afforded. The following year JBM Hertzog's United Party government introduced the 'Representation of Natives Act' (Act No 16 of 1936) which removed Black Africans from the common voter's role in the Cape (the only part of the Union to allow Black people the franchise). As a result of Luthulis leadership in Natal, the government demanded that he resign from the ANC or from chieftainship. Luthuli spent his last years in enforced isolation while African National Congress abandoned the policy of nonviolence. Lutulis life story to 1959; in later printings, sixteen pages, written no earlier than 1964, have been added. In what became known as the three doctors Pact Dr. AB Xuma, President of the ANC, Dr. GM Naicker, President of the Natal Indian Congress, and Dr. YM Dadoo, President of the Transvaal Indian Congress, signed a joint declaration of cooperation on March 9, 1947 in a bid to mobilise support for a campaign aimed at resisting these measures. From the inception of his new calling, Inkosi Luthuli was brought face to face with ruthless African political, social and economic realities those that denied his people any form of human or political rights, that kept them landless and prevented them from meaningful economic development. PUBLISHED: February 28, 2023 at 12:04 p.m. | UPDATED: March 1, 2023 at 4:04 a.m. Get ready to Feel the Bern, San Jose. So there exists another alternative - and the only solution which represents sanity - transition to a society based upon equality for all without regard to colour. We, therefore, ask all men of goodwill to take action against apartheid in the following manner: This joint statement, initiated by Chief Lutuli and the Rev. There has been a most significant political activity among African women since the Government decided in 1952 that African women, too, like their menfolk, must carry the hated pass hated because of the suffering it causes. Membership to the clubs not only occupied their leisure time and emphasised their elite status but also promoted an ethos of loyalty to the mine. At this stage Adams College was reputed to be one of the best schools in southern and central Africa. For most of his life he lived under bans, yet he continued to inspire his people through written speeches and statements. "Chief Albert Luthuli." Prepared for publication by Charles and Sheila Hooper. The chieftainship introduced me directly into the vital problem of African life: their poverty, the repressive laws under which they operate. The Apartheid government was, unsurprisingly, annoyed and he was summoned to Pretoria to answer for his actions. 4, Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. Luthuli was offered a scholarship to study at the University College of Fort hare but declined it. Chief of his tribe and president-general of the African National Congress, Albert John Lutuli1 (1898?-July 21, 1967) was the leader of ten million black Africans in their nonviolent campaign for civil rights in South Africa. The church experienced spiritual growth thru in-depth Bible Study taught by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was signed by many prominent Americans and promoted the public campaign for sanctions against South Africa. Luthulis first political step in joining the African National Congress (ANC) in 1945 was motivated by friendship with its Natal leader. On graduating from Adams, he received a scholarship to study at University of Fort Hare; but declined it because he felt that it was time he relieved his mother. He once again started his campaign against racial discrimination and some of his speeches were aimed at white South Africans, for which he earned great praises from some of them. I have been re-elected on all occasions since then. Until recently, it was widely assumed that Chief Luthuli launched the armed struggle upon his return to South Africa after receiving the Nobel Peace Prize. April 2013 to February 2017 Rev. Since its founding in 1912, the ANCs efforts to achieve human rights by deputation, petition, or mass protests had met with increasing repression. As an adviser to the organized church, he became chairman of the South African Board of the Congregationalist Church of America, president of the Natal Mission Conference, and an executive member of the Christian Council of South Africa. Angry congregants said the matter was serious and called on the church authorities to open a criminal case and force those found guilty to repay the money. But as the minority white government began to use brutal force to suppress the aspiration of the black population, he became involved with national politics and subsequently became the president of African National Congress. recent deaths in volusia county, florida. He also suffered from high blood pressure, once having a slight stroke. This involved holding courts to settle disputes and administrative work in settling family quarrels. In 1927 Lutuli married a fellow teacher, Nokukhanya Bhengu. After leaving a job as principal of an intermediate school, which he held for two years (he was also the entire staff, he says in his autobiography)2 he completed the Higher Teachers Training Course at Adams College, attending on a scholarship. His grandfather was chief of his small tribe at Groutville in the Umvoti Mission Reserve near Stanger, Natal, and was succeeded by a son. [accessed 4 March 2004]|On the Rivonia Trial [online] African National Congress. Lutuli, Albert John, The Road to Freedom Is via the Cross. 2021 CST Conference | Creating a Global Vision of Justice. From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964, Vol. In 1957, an unprecedented Declaration of Conscience was issued by more than 100 leaders from every continent. Far more significant was his election to the Natives Representative Council (an advisory body of chiefs and intellectuals set up by the government) at the very time in 1946 when troops and police were crushing a strike of African miners at the cost of eight lives and nearly a thousand injured. Sat. I was born in Southern Rhodesia at Solusia Mission Station, where my father was doing Christian missionary work as Evangelist-interpreter under the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Boddy-Evans, Alistair. On passing the year-end examination at Ohlange Institute, Albert was transferred to a Methodist institution at Edendale, located in the KwaZulu-Natal province to undergo a teachers' training course. Albert Luthuli was the first person outside Europe and Americas to receive Nobel Peace Prize. At the end of 1952, Albert Luthuli was elected president-general of the ANC. The theft resulted in the dismissal of Reverend Lameck Luthuli because his rubber stamp was used to authorise inflated payments to contractors an to make unauthorised payments. Instead Mashilo and church member Johnny Sithole appointed Fikabefile Management Services to refurbish the Tshwane Building. In 1962, he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow by the students, an honorary position he held till 1965. The five-year one I am serving now debars me from any gatherings, public or otherwise. Ultimately, after dithering for two years, he returned to Groutville in early 1936 to take up the mantle of the chief. In 1961 Chief Albert Luthuli was awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize for Peace (it had been held over that year) for his part in the anti-Apartheid struggle. In 1960, following theSharpeville Massacre, Luthuli led the call for protest. Lutuli, Albert John, and others, Africas Freedom. London, Gollancz, 1960. Inkosi Albert John Luthuli Madlanduna, was a globally respected leader and spokesman for 14million oppressed, exploited and humiliated South Africans. Since my first ban in 1953, I have virtually been under some ban to this day. Before and during the two-year "emergency" in the Transkei - 15 Africans killed by police, thousands arrested and imprisoned without trial. In the early years of his chieftaincy, Luthuli became immersed in the struggles of the cane growers in his chiefdom. The government outlawed the ANC and its rival offshoot, the Pan-Africanist Congress. Production of sugarcane, the chief crop of the area, had failed, causing great hardship to the people. As Luthuli was elected president-general of ANC, the government tried to minimize his effectiveness by imposing ban on him under the Internal Security (Suppression of Communism) Act. Albert Luthuli was honored with Nobel Peace Prize 1960. My own senior paternal uncle, Chief Martin Luthuli, was a member. Refusing to do either voluntarily, he was dismissed from his chieftainship, for chiefs hold office at the pleasure of the government even though elected by tribal elders. "Chief Albert Luthuli." The Order of Luthuli is a South African honour. He gave his life to Jesus in 1991 while he was in Higher Primary. There have been national stay-at-homes. For 35 years the consumer boycott was at the heart of anti-apartheid campaigns. An Autobiographical Article, 1961. London, Heinemann, 1958. Appendix A of Let My People Go, q.v. From Nobel Lectures, Peace 1951-1970, Editor Frederick W. Haberman, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1972. Lutuli, Albert John, Let My People Go: An Autobiography. In 1950, the government enacted the Pass Law, which further restricted the movement of the black people. As the one-year ban expired, Luthuli immersed himself in work, opening conferences and starting campaigns. Obituary, the (London) Times (July 22, 1967) 12. I was born in Southern Rhodesia at Solusia Mission Station, where my father was doing Christian missionary work as Evangelist-interpreter under the Seventh Day Adventist Church. It was his first trip outside his country and it might have widened his perception. The Order of Luthuli is a South African honour. Also in 1933, the tribal elders of Groutville community invited him to succeed Josiah Mqebu, the chief of the tribe since 1921. In our prayers. However, it was temporarily relaxed in December 1961, to enable him to travel to Oslo to accept the Nobel Prize. It was from this background he joined the African National Congress in 1945. In 1964, he was served with his fourth and last ban, confining him to his home in Groutville. Luthuli Scholarship Fund was also set up to enable a black South African student to study at Glasgow University. That's right, Sen. Bernie Sanders will be in town Saturday night to talk . - Albert Luthuli answer to a question, 5 March 1959, "What I think of Macmillan`s speech": Article by Albert Luthuli, 1 March 1960, "What I would do if I were Prime Minister" by Albert Luthuli, 5 February 1962, Chicago, 'We Go To Action': Statement on the Launching In Natal of the Defiance Campaign, August 30, 1952, 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup is a tribute to Africa - ANC, 21 May 2010, 44th National Conference Special Presidential Message by Chief Lutuli. Luthuli was returned unopposed to the semi-defunct council in 1948. 300 Main Street, Barney, ND 58008 Southeast Circuit Beach, St. Paul - Rev. The Asiatic Land Tenure and Indian Representation Act, 1946 (Act No. Omissions? I was found guilty of burning my pass by way of demonstrating against a law. During the Defiance Campaign Chief Luthuli was actively involved in soliciting and recruiting volunteers. Aldin Groutville of the American Board Mission who, with three other missionaries, was sent out in 1835 by the American Board to do missionary work among the Zulus. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above. Albert lost his father at the age of eight. Sometime between 1906 and 1908, he accompanied his mother to his ancestral home in Groutville. Anton Lembede, who was to become founder of the ANC Youth League, is known to have worn shabby clothing. His long trial failed to prove treason, a communist conspiracy, or violence, and in 1957 he was released. His mother, Mtonya Gumede, spent part of her childhood in the household of Cetewayo kaMpande, the king of the Zulu Kingdom, but was mostly raised in Groutville. Foe of Apartheid, the New York Times (October 24, 1961) 22. Although suffering from ill health and failing eyesight, and still restricted to his home in Stanger, Albert Luthuli remained president-general of the ANC. He enjoyed a period of relative freedom between his release at the end of 1957 and May 1959, when a new ban confined him to the Lower Tugela district for five years. Luthuli has been honored with a feast day by Episcopal Church (USA). Bronze (OLB), for outstanding contributions. Tasked with a mission to manage Alfred Nobel's fortune and hasultimate responsibility for fulfilling the intentions of Nobel's will. Rev. 2023 Arena Holdings (Pty) Ltd. All rights reserved. One question that the panel plans to discuss is the kind of justice that we need . He remained at the college until 1935. For fifteen years or so before his death, Lutuli suffered from high blood pressure and once had a slight stroke. Benson, Mary, Chief Albert Lutuli of South Africa. In 1952, stimulated by young black intellectuals, the ANC joined the South African Indian Congress in a countrywide campaign to defy what were deemed unjust laws; 8,500 men and women went voluntarily to prison. In 1917, Albert John Mvumbi Luthuli began his career as the Principal at a primary school in rural Blaauwbosch in Newcastle, Natal. Albert Luthuli was now well settled in his position, enjoying the security of a monthly salary, something he loathed to forego. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. They also demanded the immediate reinstatement of Luthuli pending the outcome of the investigations. This year as in the years before it, mankind has paid for the maintenance of peace the price of many lives. Boddy-Evans, Alistair. Chief Albert John Mvumbi Luthuli, Africa's first Nobel Peace Prize Laureate in 1960, was President-General of the African National Congress (ANC) from December 1952 until his death in 1967. Known as Defiance Campaign, the movement started on 26th June and Luthuli led the campaign in Natal. He took up nonviolent methods to end the regressive system of apartheid and while doing so helped to form world opinion against South Africa's policy of Apartheid. The government responded with imposing the third ban. At the annual conference of December 1952, Chief Luthuli was elected ANC president-general by a large majority. As he grew older, his hearing and eyesight also became impaired. Copyright 2017- 2022 | Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital. On his return, he continued with his fight. . These interactions brought him into contact with leading trade unionists in the region, and helped raise his profile as a potential national leader. It was in the course of his activities in the interests of peace that the late Dag Hammarskjold lost his life. The apartheid republic is a reality today only because the peoples and governments of the world have been unwilling to place her in quarantine. This joint statement, initiated by Chief Lutuli and the Rev. In 1920, he received a government bursary, with which he enrolled at Adams College, located south of Durbar, for a higher teachers' training course. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. Before the completion of work on the church Tirisano Mmogo said it had no capacity to do the work at Tshwane Building and was not asked to refund the outstanding money. During this period, he was actively involved in recruiting volunteers. Gordimer, Nadine, Chief Luthuli, Atlantic Monthly, 203 (April, 1959) 34-39. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Despite their almost privileged and insular lifestyles, some students at the College struggled to make ends meet. A latecomer to politics, the Chief was 54 when he assumed the leadership of the ANC. Having first trained as a teacher at Edendale, near Pietermaritzburg, Luthuli attended additional courses at Adam's College (in 1920), and went on to become part of the college staff. As South African government began to impose greater and greater restrictions on the black population from the middle of 1930s, Luthuli realized that it was time to act. Albert John Luthuli, in full Albert John Mvumbi Luthuli, Luthuli also spelled Lutuli, (born 1898, near Bulawayo, Rhodesia [now in Zimbabwe]died July 21, 1967, Stanger, S.Af. added fuel to the fire by calling for a Day of Mourning for Sharpeville victims, and called upon the African people to burn their passes. Here he studied until standard four. Please read our Comment Policy before commenting. In 1927 Luthuli married Nokukhanya Bhengu, a teacher and granddaughter of a clan chief. Albert was the couples third child. In 1938, he visited India to attend the International Missionary Conference in Tambaram, Madras. The unions main concern was to strive for better wages and conditions of service. The Amakholwa, considered the middle class of the time, found life difficult. Luthuli responded by publicly burning his pass book. Although bans confined him to his rural home throughout his presidency, he nevertheless was able to write statements and speeches for presentation at ANC conferences, and occasionally circumstances permitted him to attend conferences personally. I was still president-general when the A.N.C. A week later the ANCs newly created military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), attacked installations throughout South Africa. Kassel, W.Germany, Oncken, 1965. ), Zulu chief, teacher and religious leader, and president of the African National Congress (195260) in South Africa. (President of African National Congress (ANC)) Albert John Luthuli was a leader of black resistance in South Africa. I was born in 1898. No doubt, my ill-health made the magistrate give me a suspended sentence and an option of a fine. Since no information is available about his siblings, it is assumed he was the only surviving child. Then I joined the staff of Amanzimtoti Institute (Adams College) as a teacher. Limpopo Bishop Gavin Taylor said the allegations had not yet been tested. The panel addresses the major injustices that have to be addressed in our world. Chief of his tribe and president-general of the African National Congress, Albert John Lutuli1 (1898?-July 21, 1967) was the leader of ten million black Africans in their nonviolent campaign for civil rights in South Africa. He accrued valuable political experience by organising boycotts and acting as a negotiator with white authorities. Hold meetings and demonstrations on December 10, Human Rights Day: Urge your church, union, lodge, or club to observe this day as one of protest; Urge your Government to support economic sanctions; Write to your mission to the United Nations urging adoption of a resolution calling for international isolation of South Africa; Translate public opinion into public action by explaining facts to all peoples, to groups to which you belong, and to countries of which you are citizens until AN EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL QUARANTINE OF APARTHEID IS ESTABLISHED. On release he was confined to his home in Stanger, Natal. Corrections? Living with his uncle, he also imbibed tribal traditions and values. Other than working for the betterment of his people, he was also required to represent both the government and his people, performing magisterial duties, mediating in case of trouble. Albert Luthuli was deeply religious, and during his time at Adam's College, he became a lay preacher. Lutulis return to active leadership in 1958 was cut short by the imposition of a third ban, this time a five-year ban prohibiting him from publishing anything and confining him to a fifteen-mile radius of his home. I became provincial president in 1951. He was a delegate to the International Missionary Conference in Madras in 1938 and in 1948 spent nine months on a lecture tour of the United States, sponsored by two missionary organizations. Last edited on 26 September 2022, at 13:17, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Archibald Sibeko also known as Zola Zembe, James Sebebubijwasekgogobontharile Moroka, "The Presidency | Thomas Titus Nkobi (1922 1994 )", "History timeline:History of South Africa and significant dates in Denis Goldberg's life", "The Life of a Revolutionary for Freedom", "IAHET Imam Abdullah Haron Education Trust", "Imam Abdullah Haron | South African History Online", https://www.facebook.com/ImamAbdullahHaron, http://www.ciibroadcasting.com/2014/04/16/more-muslims-to-receive-south-africas-highest-honours/, "National orders to be bestowed on Freedom Day", "President Jacob Zuma bestows 2016 National Orders Awards, 28 Apr", "Winnie Madikizela-Mandela absent as Zuma awards national honours", Order of Luthuli: Organization, Symbolism, Design, and Members, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_of_Luthuli&oldid=1112467223. A tender of R698,000 by Tirisano Mmogo was accepted but the final invoice was inflated by 39%, bringing the amount to R969,000. My bans have been twofold: debarring me from attending gatherings and being confined to the magisterial area of Lower Tugela, Natal. Definition and Examples, Biography of Ernest Hemingway, Pulitzer and Nobel Prize Winning Writer, Biography of Alfred Nobel, Inventor of Dynamite, Biography of Martin Thembisile (Chris) Hani, South African Activist, Understanding South Africa's Apartheid Era, Chester A Arthur: Twenty-First President of the United States, Postgraduate Certificate in Education, University College London. In 1935 Luthuli accepted the chieftaincy of the Groutville reserve (this was not a hereditary position, but awarded as the result of an election) and was suddenly immersed in the realities of South Africa's racial politics. Resigning from Adams College in 1935, I took up duties as Chief at Groutville Mission on January 1, 1936. Slowly he began to transcend his role as the tribal chief, moving towards national politics. Callan, Edward, Albert John Luthuli and the South African Race Conflict. He refused to do either. During this time Rev. In 1944, he joined the African National Congress (ANC), being elected to the Committee of the KwaZulu Provincial Division of ANC, in 1945. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. In 1946, he was elected to the Natives Representative Council, a governmental advisory body comprising of chiefs and intellectuals. In spite of that he continued to work towards his goal. NobelPrize.org. Mathews, who was then the head of Adams College High School. MLA style: Albert Lutuli Biographical. In the national election of December, 1952, I was nominated candidate. The futility and limited nature of tribal affairs and politics made him look for a higher and broader form of organisation and struggle which was national in character. Yet, there is still no consensus about whether he approved of the ANCs transition from a peaceful organisation into one committed to armed struggle. This "solution" may be workable. In December 1956 he was included in the treason arrests, but was released with 60 others in late 1957 after the pre-trial examination. Couper argues that Chief Luthuli did not support the initiation of violence in December 1961 because his political career proved to be bound by faith. A professional educator for the next fifteen years, Lutuli then and afterwards contended that education should be made available to all Africans, that it should be liberal and not narrowly vocational in nature, and that its quality should be equal to that made available to white children. In 1952, African National Congress joined the South African Indian Congress to stage a countrywide nonviolent campaign against the discriminatory laws. [accessed 4 March 2004]|Carter, G. et al. The government responded bybanningLuthuli, Mandela, and nearly 100 others. Nonwhite people responded in large numbers to his call for a stay-at-home strike in 1957; later, whites also began attending his mass meetings. He therefore joined Adams College as a teacher at a monthly salary of 10. Church treasurer Portia Mashilo signed for the payments and also used Luthuli's rubber stamp signature. Because of overcrowding they now are on an average five acres each. Albert John Mvumbi (Zulu: Continuous Rain) Luthuli was born in Rhodesia, where his father, John Bunyan Luthuli, a missionary interpreter, had gone from Zululand. The next year he joined with other ANC leaders in organizing nonviolent campaigns to defy discriminatory laws. Wits protesters throw trash in JHB CBD, close businesses for third day, Wits students scuffle with security, destroy bus sign amid fees protests. And many white supremacists learned for the first time how isolated they were. Watch on. I was deposed by the Government in 1952 for participating in the Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws. As the second ban expired in July 1956, Luthuli began attending meetings and conferences. In response to his removal as chief of Grouville, Luthuli issued "The Road to Freedom is via the Cross", perhaps the most famous statement of his principles a belief in non-violence: a conviction that apartheid degrades all who are party to it, and an optimism that whites would sooner or later be compelled to change heart and accept a shared society. There were then about 200 members, mostly very small growers, because land holdings were small.

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