[102] According to the ancient sources, Archelaus commanded between 60,000 and 120,000 men;[103] in the aftermath, he allegedly escaped with only 10,000. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. [73] The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. The next year, 96BC, he assigned "probably pro consule as was customary" to Cilicia in Asia Minor. If you have questions, please consult your instructor or librarian. There is no single tool that will find everything at UCR, but a good start is to reach . [123], After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. [30] Sulla was popular with the men, charming and benign, he built up a healthy rapport while also winning popularity with other officers, including Marius. [43] Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games, was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99BC. Secondary Sources: Primary sources are not complete; you will find the following helpful: Boardman, John, ed. The Samnite and anti-Sullan commanders were then hunted down as "for all intents and purposes the civil war in Italy was over". The Romans neutralised a Pontic charge of scythed chariots before pushing the Pontic phalanx back across the plain. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. under Gaius Marius in the wars against the Numidian rebel Jugurtha. Secondary sources include: Essays analyzing novels, works of art, and other original creations. [152], Sulla was red-blond[154] and blue-eyed, and had a dead-white face covered with red marks. Click the title for location and availability information. They are original research, thinking, or discovery on a topic or event, and are written or created by people who actually experienced the event . "[133][134], At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC,[135] the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. [70][71] They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. He's remembered best for bringing his soldiers into Rome, the killing of Roman citizens, and his military skill in several areas. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of the ideal characteristics of a ruler. He brought Pompeii under siege. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. Sulla had his enemies declared hostes, probably from outside the pomerium, and after assembling an assembly where he apologised for the ongoing war, left to fight Carbo in Etruria. [59] Sulla attempted also to assist Lucius' relief of the city of Aesernia, which was under siege, but both men were unsuccessful. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. Ozzy Osbourne Grandchildren, Dalton Smith Pogo Stick, Best Basketball Camps In Ontario, Rinnai R53i Parts Diagram, Mennonite Vs Amish Vs Mormon, National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. [81] He sent his army back to Capua[82] and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. 107/14 The dissolute lifestyle of L.Sulla, as a young man. [64], Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender. When the campaign in Italy started, two theatres emerged, with Sulla facing the younger Marius in the south and Metellus Pius facing Carbo in the north. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. [49] At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. After another attempt to relieve Praeneste failed, Carbo lost his nerve and attempted to retreat to Africa; his lieutenants attempted again to relieve Praeneste but after that again failed, marched on Rome to force Sulla from his well-defended positions. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. [136] Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. He never allowed his debaucheries to interfere with his duties but he devoted all his leisure time to them. Primary sources are often in manuscript collections and archival records. Roman military leaders. Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. Hind 1992, p.150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". But it was from 59, Nero's fifth year as emperor that things started to go seriously . Primary sources in history are often created by people who witnessed, participated in, or were otherwise close to a particular event. Making of America. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. Research Process and Acumen: Experience with primary sources can support future academic success. [108] Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. Marius, in the midst of this military crisis, sought and won repeated consulships, which upset aristocrats in the Senate; they, however, likely acknowledged the indispensability of Marius' military capabilities in defeating the Germanic invaders. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. Catulus, with Sulla, moved to block their advance; the two men likely cooperated well. After the battle, Marius withdrew to Praeneste and was there besieged. From Book 81 [81.1] [87 BCE] Lucius Sulla besieged Athens, which had been occupied by Archelaus, an officer of Mithridates; [81.2] [86] after much labor he took the city .. note he gave it back the freedom it used to have. Sulla then duly besieged the city. [114], The general feeling in Italy, however, was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. [17] After his father's death, around the time Sulla reached adulthood, Sulla found himself impoverished. Marius, elected again to the consulship of 101, came to Catulus' aid; Sulla, in charge of supporting army provisioning, did so competently and was able to feed both armies. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. Editor: Paul Halsall. Primary sources are "first-hand" information, sources as close as possible to the origin of the information or idea under study. [88] Political violence in Rome continued even in Sulla's absence. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. Weekly Newspaper Articles as Primary Sources. The source types commonly used in academic writing include: Academic journals. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. Proscribing or outlawing every one of those whom he perceived to have acted against the best interests of the Republic while he was in the east, Sulla ordered some 1,500 nobles (i.e. It is intended to serve the needs of teachers and students in college survey courses in modern European history and American history, as well as in modern Western Civilization and World Cultures. Categories . the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death). [119][120] The remainder of 83BC was dedicated to recruiting for the next year's campaign amid poor weather: Quintus Sertorius had raised a considerable force in Etruria, but was alienated from the consuls by the election of Gaius Marius' son rather than himself and so left to his praetorian province of Hispania Citerior; Sulla repudiated recognition of any treaties with the Samnites, whom he did not consider to be Roman citizens due to his rejection of Marius and Cinna's deal in 87BC. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. For now, Cinna and the Marian political faction would have to wait, but revenge would prove far deadlier than anything that had come before it. While Sulla's laws such as those concerning qualification for admittance to the Senate, reform of the legal system and regulations of governorships remained on Rome's statutes long into the principate, much of his legislation was repealed less than a decade after his death. Mithridates also would equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. Book Sources: Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery March (1965) A selection of books/e-books available in Trible Library. Introduction. [66] Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus. Examples include journal articles, reviews . [72] Sulpicius' attempts to push through the Italian legislation again brought him into violent urban conflict, although he "offered nothing to the urban plebs so it continued to resist him". [55] The Cimbric war also revived Italian solidarity, aided by Roman extension of corruption laws to allow allies to lodge extortion claims. Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. Primary Sources Sallust. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. [104] When the Pontic cavalry attacked to interrupt the earthworks, the Romans almost broke; Sulla personally rallied his men on foot and stabilised the area. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus, who wanted to install one of his own sons (Ariarathes) on the Cappadocian throne. Primary sources can include: Texts of laws and other original documents. Revised on November 11, 2022. Contact: Research Help Desk, University Library Colorado State University-Pueblo 2200 Bonforte Blvd. [19] Plutarch mentions that during his last marriage to Valeria, he still kept company with "actresses, musicians, and dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day.[20]. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. "[132] The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. porterville unified school district human resources; Tags . No action was taken against the troops nor action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. [6] He also disbanded his legions and, through these gestures, attempted to show the re-establishment of normal consular government. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. He was both eloquent and clever, and he made friends easily. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. Shortly before Sulla's first consulship, the Romans fought the bloody Social War against their . [67], Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89BC, was not uncontested. Keep in mind as you use this website, the Web is always changing and evolving. [6] Keaveney places his departure to 93. The later battle, at Orchomenus, was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. Life dates 138 BC-78 BC. He left one of his allies, Quintus Lucretius Afella to maintain the siege at Praeneste and moved for Rome. The proscriptions are widely perceived as a response to similar killings that Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . [42], Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. [59] Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar. [96] Rome unsuccessfully defended Delos from an joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. From 133BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. [113] The extra time spent in Asia, moreover, equipped him with forces and money later put to good use in Italy. His family was patrician, part of the ruling class in ancient Rome. For example: scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, biographies, or textbooks. [24] Keaveney 2005, pp. Updated on October 07, 2019. Primary sources are most often produced around the time of the events you are studying. [21] Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. Throughout the research process, you'll likely use various types of sources. [2023] Welcome to The Internet History Sourcebooks Project, a collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use. [101], Sulla decamped his army from Attica toward central Greece. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. Sulla's career is recounted in detail in Howard Hayes Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. The faculty and students of the Hanover College History Department initiated the Hanover Historical Texts Project in 1995, at a time when few primary sources were available outside of published anthologies. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. Encyclopedias. [130], In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a series of proscriptions (a program of executing and confiscating the property of those whom he perceived as enemies of the state). Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE) was a ruthless military commander, who first distinguished himself in the Numidian War under the command of Gaius Marius.His relationship with Marius soured during the conflicts that would follow and lead to a rivalry which would only end with Marius' death.Sulla eventually seized control of the Republic, named himself dictator, and after eliminating his . However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. Plutarch of Chaeronea in Boeotia (ca. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. When he was still a proconsul in 82, he planned and executed the proscriptions against his enemies for revenge, especially from the Marian camp, and against rich Romans because he needed money to pay his veterans . Marius (C. Marius) - Roman consul, seven times from 107 B.C. [121], Fighting in 83BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed. Copyright statement. Skilfully withdrawing to Clusium, he delegated to Norbanus command of troops to hold Metellus Pius. The second was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who died young. [84] Cinna, even before the election, said he would prosecute Sulla at the conclusion of the latter's consular term. In . Lucius Cornelius Sulla I. Sulla 5 (L. Cornelius Sulla Felix) - Roman dictator, 82-79 B.C. Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. . Publius Cornelius Rufinus, one of Sulla's ancestors and also the last member of his family to be consul, was banished from the Senate after having been caught possessing more than 10 pounds of silver plate. Websites. Social: Facebook Page YouTube Page Instagram Page. Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. Sulla and the proscriptions Lucius Cornelius Sulla was consul in 88 BC (and again in 80 BC) and dictator from 82 to 79 BC. . Some set their hearts on houses, some on landsThe whole period was one of debauched tastes and lawlessness. However, in some cases, paintings are considered secondary sources. However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. [31] Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix in 52 AD (he was the son of the consul of 31, and the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius). Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. was the first man to use the army to establish a personal autocracy at Rome.. Sulla first came into prominence when he served as quaestor (107-106 B.C.) His colleague was, 79 BC: Retires from political life, refusing the, 78 BC: Dies, perhaps of an intestinal ulcer, with funeral held in Rome, This page was last edited on 2 March 2023, at 11:05. Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. The type of source you look for will depend on the stage you are at in the writing process. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and art objects. Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. [17] Sallust declares him well-read, intelligent, and he was fluent in Greek. His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae. [40] But Catulus' army was defeated in the eastern Alps and withdrew from Venetia and thence to the southern side of the river Po. [36] Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla a patrician, even if a poor one, as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius. These sieges lasted until spring of 86BC. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. [58] At the start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. [110], After peace was reached, Sulla advanced on Fimbria's forces, which deserted their upstart commander. [118], For 82BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius, the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. 719-549-2333. [40], In 102BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. He became a tribune of the plebeians in 52 BC where he gained a reputation for being a strong supporter of the populares. Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . [13][14][15] Sulla's family thereafter did not reach the highest offices of the state until Sulla himself. Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. In 89BC, one of the tribunes of the plebs passed the lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to all of the allies (with exception for the Samnites and Lucanians still under arms). He might have been disinherited, though it was "more likely" that his father simply had nothing to bequeath. [32] After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary.

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